Lt3 23^5 



Lectures & Examinations 

BEING 

Hints on Taking Notes at Lectures 

WITH SOME 

Suggestions on Preparing for Examinations 



H. S. MORTON 

(Late Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge) 



Cambridge: 

W. HEFFER & SONS LTD. 

London : Simpkin, Marshall 6? Co. Ltd. 

1913 

One Shilling net. 



Lectures & Examinations 

BEING 

Hints on Taking Notes at Lectures 

WITH SOME 

Suggestions on Preparing for Examinations 



H. S. MORTON 

(Late Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge) 



Cambridge : 
W. HEFFER & SONS LTD. 

London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. Ltd. 

1913 



A 



V 



^".^' 



PREFACE. 



These pages are the outcome of a suggestion which 
was made to me that I should expand some notes which 
I had originally drawn up for the use of private pupils, 
and that I should put them together in the form of a 
small book. 

If the hints it contains are found to be of any help 
to members of Universities and others attending lectures 
and working for important examinations, the book will 
have served its purpose. 

My best thanks are due to Professor T. B. Wood 
and Mr. G. G. Butler for valuable criticism. 



H. S. MORTON. 



Causeway House, 

Cambridge. 

September, 1913. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
ON TAKING NOTES AT LECTURES. 

1. Introduction. 

2. Lectures and the taking of Notes. 

3. Fact and Reasoning. 

4. System. 

6. Abbreviation. 

6. The Value of Diagrams. 

7. A summary of Hints. 



PART II. 
ON PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS. 



APPENDIX. 

Some Hints on Practical Examinations in Science. 



PART I. ON TAKING NOTES AT LECTURES. 

I. INTRODUCTION. 

Those who go to lectures may be divided for our 
purpose into three classes, according to the type of 
memory they possess : — 

(1) Those whose method of recording what they hear 

is by the absorption of the information into 
their brains, the making of mental notes, and 
the shelving of them, so to speak, in their 
mental library. This may, perhaps, be called 
an "intellectual" memory. 

(2) Those who have the uncommon gift (a gift often 

coupled with a defect in one of the other senses) 
of being able to remember practically word 
for word what the lecturer says, producing, as 
it were, a gramophone record in their brains, 
which they are able to " turn on " at any time 
when needed. An " aural " or ** auditory " 
memory. 

(3) Those who try to imagine the information given 

as a picture or diagram, photographing, so to 
speak, all they hear said, developing and fixing 
it either at once or later, and putting the 
mental photograph away in its allotted album 
in the brain. A ** visual " memory. 

May we give a simple illustration to compare these three 
types ? Suppose, for sake of example, the Battle of 
Waterloo is being described. 

The listener with the first type of memory would 
be able to take in the general plan of campaign, the 



different tactics, the time of day at which the various 
advances and repulses were made, Wellington's encourag- 
ing words, the fine flanking movement of such and such 
a regiment, and so on, by writing it down (with modifica- 
tions and omissions) in his mental note-book, and placing 
the book in its right place in the mental library, from 
which it can be taken out when it is a question of 
remembering. 

The second type, in listening to the description of 
the battle, would merely start the machinery going, stop 
it when the lecturer had finished, and put away the 
gramophone record in its right box in the brain, to be 
called for and "switched on" when necessary. This 
type of man would commonly be likened to a parrot ; 
but perfect " parrots " are very rare, and the type of 
memory when imperfect is very dangerous. 

The listener with the third type of memory would 
imagine the whole battle as a picture, or rather a series 
of pictures, making diagrams in his brain to illustrate 
the formation of the troops and so on ; the method of 
committing to memory being the pasting, so to speak, 
of the series of photographs into the mental album. He 
would probably never be able to remember the various 
periods of the day at which the advances and retreats 
were made, or Wellington's words, just because no 
picture could be visualised to represent them. 

It may be observed in passing that Type No. 1 is 
often a bad speller, no exact record being kept of words 
seen in print; Type No. 2 an indifferent speller, having 
only the sound of the words to go by ; while Type No. 3 
seldom spells a word wrongly, any word once seen written 
being mentally photographed and so recorded accurately ; 
but, if given to spell a word which he has never seen 
written, he is nonplussed. The three types converge 
together, of course, and it is very often difficult to dis- 
tinguish clearly between them. 



It is mostly for the third type that these hints are 
meant, partly because the possessor of a really good 
general memory * (the less parrot-like the better) will 
not need to take either so many or so special a form of 
notes, and partly because the method of diagrams, which 
will be explained later, will probably not appeal to him. 

11. LECTURES AND THE TAKING OF NOTES. 

The great value of attending lectures is derived not 
so much from what the lecturer says as from the way 
in which he says it. How often does one have to read 
and re-read a sentence in a text-book before one grasps 
on which word the emphasis is meant to be and what 
the author is " driving at." (It is often a good plan to 
underline the important word for a future reminder.) 
This trouble is saved when listening to a good lecturer 
who varies his tone to suit the meaning and lays emphasis 
on the important word. 

A good set of notes taken from a good lecturer makes 
the most valuable basis from which to work up a subject 
that the student can have. The great advantage lies in 
having all arguments and processes of reasoning in one's 
own method of thinking, and everything set out by oneself 
in a form which one is best able to understand, and from 
which one can recall all points in the lecture. 

Undergraduates are often heard to say : *' I am no good 
at taking notes ; I * keep ' all my lectures, but make the 
text-book my working basis." 



* A good memory may be said to depend upon : — 

(1) One's ordinary natural tenacity, which is a gift, and cannot be 

improved by education. 

(2) One's habitual methods of recording facts, including the art of 

weaving round the fact to be remembered as many associates as 
possible, which can be improved. 

By the "possessor of a good memory" is meant here the 

man with a high natural tenacity. 



10 

It will be found that these men are not deriving 
nearly as much good as they ought, simply because they 
have not acquired the habit of taking down full and 
well arranged notes. Besides being an interesting study 
in itself, the actual taking of the notes makes the subject 
more interesting, and helps one to keep one's mind 
rivetted on what the lecturer is saying. Of course a 
great deal depends on the subject of the lecture; but the 
subjects for which it is unnecessary to take notes are 
very few. 

Again, the reminding power of one's notes is im- 
portant, for to the strings of fact are attached trains of 
argument by which one is able to recall the method which 
the lecturer used in arriving at the fact, and even the 
lecturer's expression and tone of voice at the time : we 
must bear in naind that the best and often only way of 
committing anything to memory is to gather round it as 
many associations as possible. 

There are a great many who advocate making a fair 
copy of one's notes as a means of remembering them, 
but the writer ventures to disagree with this for the 
following reasons : — 

(1) Writing out is tedious, and is very apt to make 

one's mind wander ; and if one copies without 
paying attention, it is merely a waste of time. 

(2) If plenty of space is left between the lines and 

the opposite side left blank when taking the 
notes, all additions, expansions and alterations 
can be inserted at any later time ; and although 
this tends to make the notes untidy, the very 
irregularities help to impress upon the memory 
all the details of the lecture. 

(3) The reminding value of one's notes, mentioned 

above, is greatly diminished by making a fair 
copy. 



11 
III. FACT AND REASONING. 

If the subject matter of any lecture comes to be 
analysed, it is generally found that it can be divided 

into : — 

(1) Bare facts. 

(2) Logical arguments. 

Naturally one subject contains much more of one 
than the other. For instance, Logic consists, of course, 
almost entirely of reasoning. For examples of subjects 
which have a preponderance of fact, we might cite — 
Archaeology, Elementary Geography, Palaeontology, and , 
perhaps, History and parts of Jurisprudence, while 
Philosophy, Mathematics (especially Geometry and the 
Calculus), Physiology, Physics and Genetics might be said 
to have a preponderance of reasoning. 

To make notes of fact is generally an easy matter, as 
long as there is time to take down as much as is wanted, 
but reasoning must be followed and clearly understood 
before notes can be made. 

The man with the photographic type of memory has 
to be a quick writer when the lecturer is providing mere 
fact of which a picture cannot be made. 

But it is important to bear in mind that many facts 
which are stated in the lecture hang upon a reasoned 
argument which is apparent if sought after: and to 
append a little note of this reasoned argument, in 
brackets, is an extremely valuable help in remembering 
the fact. It cannot be too often repeated that the way to 
commit any fact to memory is to collect round it many 
associations, from which there are easy paths leading to 
the fact ; and the chance of remembering at a future time 
will depend upon the number and persistence of these 
associations and paths. 

Let us take an every-day example : — Suppose we 
want to remember to keep an important appointment. 
Most of us would write it down in our engagement 
book, to which we know we shall refer each day ; some 



12 

of US might keep the letter about the appointment in 
our pockets ; some of us might make a knot in our 
handkerchiefs ; some of us might think that as it is 
important it is sure to be uppermost in our minds, and 
as we shall always be thinking about it we cannot forget. 

Now by all of these practices, the hope of remember- 
ing is based on : — 

(1) The constant deepening of the impression on th^ 

memory by being incessantly reminded about 
the appointment, 

(2) The cutting down of the period through which it 

has to be kept in the front of the mind to the 
last few hours beforehand, 

but is it not possible that the appointment may be 
forgotten at the last minute? 

The wise man (although he may employ one of the 
above methods as an extra precaution) will make the 
following his main method of remembering : — He will 
begin to plan out how the appointment will affect his 
usual routine, and will say to himself something of this 
sort : " As he wants me to meet him at that time, it 
means that I shall have to start a little earlier than usual, 
so I must go and order breakfast at 7.45, and tell the 
housekeeper to call me early ; and as I shall have to take 
a great number of heavy books to show him I shall not 
be able to bicycle as I usually do, so I need not mend the 
puncture in my tyre till after the appointment, when I 
shall have more time ; that will mean I must catch the 
8.30 bus ; I hope it is not crowded as it often is," and so 
on, thinking it out and forming round the fact to be 
remembered many associations and paths, one of which 
he is sure to strike upon before the time of the appoint- 
ment. His housekeeper may possibly forget her orders, 
the sight of a crowded bus the night before and using the 
books he has to take with him may both fail to remind 
him, but when it comes to getting his bicycle ready, the 



13 

flat tyre is sure to make him remember, probably bringing 
out the familiar phrase, " That reminds me." 

It was owing to the presence of many associations 
with paths leading from them to the fact, and to his 
reasoning that he remembered the fact that he had to 
keep the appointment. 

The same applies to any subject we may take up. 
In History, for instance, the best and much the most 
intellectual way of committing to memory a pure fact 
like the date of a king's accession to the throne is to work 
out the relation between it and the years of rule of the 
last sovereign, the date of a battle, the death of a states- 
man, the length of life of a Parliament, a change of 
dynasty, and so on, interweaving them all together * so 
that one can have some reasons for stating a certain date, 
and need not depend entirely upon a rhyme or other 
parrot-like method of remembering. 

The failure to remember a fact in an examination is 
very often due to the lack of previous reasoning, of some 
link which can bring out from us the expression, *' That 
reminds me." 

IV. SYSTEM. 

Notes without any system are practically useless. 

One quite often comes across a man whose notes are 
a perfect muddle from beginning to end. That man will 
generally admit his notes are quite valueless to him. 

The more business-like a man is in his method of 
taking notes, the more use will his notes be to him after, 
and the firmer will become his grasp of the subject. 

With regard to the question of whether to use a note- 
book or one of the various filing arrangements, it is 
largely a matter of individual taste. If the course of 
lectures at which one intends to take notes is a definite 

* It is an assistance to the memory to settle upon the dates of a few important 
events to use as bases, basic dates we might call them, from which others in the 
same period can be imagined to radiate. 



14 

one, embracing an entire subject, an ordinary note-book 
is the best ; lined, if the subject be nearly all writing, such 
as History, Theology, or Jurisprudence ; unlined, if there 
are to be many figures and diagrams, or if the spacing of 
the words has to be uneven, such as in Mathematics. 

It is a help to use note-books with different coloured 
bindings and to allot a certain colour to each of one's 
subjects, and to keep to the colour when getting further 
note-books for the subject. 

It is a mistake to get a small note-book for any of 
the subjects or main divisions of a subject of one's study- 
It may be taken as an axiom that one's notes for the term 
will fill a large note-book. 

A file of some sort is useful under the following 
circumstances : — 

(1) If it should be possible only to attend a course 

on certain days owing to its clashing with 
another course, then single sheets of paper, 
lined or unlined, whichever is the more suitable, 
can be used at these lectures, and the notes 
on the lectures missed can be written out either 
by borrowing notes from someone else or by 
studying the text-books on the subject, and the 
sheets can then be arranged properly and in 
order in the file. (This is not a satisfactory 
arrangement, but sometimes unavoidable.) 

(2) If four lectures have to be attended consecutively 

in the morning, some men object to carrying 
about a great many note-books with them. In 
this case one general file stocked with single 
sheets of paper can be taken to the lectures 
and notes taken on these sheets, beginning a 
fresh sheet, of course, for each lecture. Then 
in the evening the sheets can be sorted out, 
read through (altering and expanding where 
necessary), and added to the previous ones in 
their respective special files. The objection to 



15 

this system is that one cannot refer to one's 
back notes during the lecture if one wants to. 

(3) If one wishes to add a great deal of matter to 
various parts of one's notes at some later time, 
or where one likes to rewrite parts or redraw 
the figures and diagrams, one is able to replace 
and add sheets as one likes if a file is used. 

For those who are fond of them, there are a large 
number of files and labour-saving appliances which can 
be chosen from at any good stationer. 

An objection to files in general is that the sheets 
of paper are liable to become loose and get lost, but a 
little care will obviate this. 

Summing up, the writer is inclined to think that an 
ordinary note-book cannot be beaten, if one side is left 
blank for additions, criticisms, side issues and extra 
sketches, and a list of contents is written on the front 
page, and the subject (and section, if more than one note- 
book has to be used for the subject) is marked on the 
side and on the back, so that, whether on the table or in 
the bookcase, there is no difficulty in picking out the 
note-book one wants from among the rest. 

If once the student recognizes the importance of 
method and of working out special schemes of his own, 
note-taking will be an easy matter for him and his notes 
will be of real use to him. 

Some subjects obviously need classification more 
than others, but it is possible to draw out some system 
of classification for nearly every subject. 

Let us just consider a few different systems of 
classification : — 

In History one would, of course, have a note-book 
for each set of lectures. The main divisions of each 
would probably represent periods, and the periods might 
be subdivided into various types of headings, such as : — 
" Collapse of Constitutional Authority," " Montezuma's 
great work for his Kingdom," "The later years of 



16 

Charlemagne," "Powerful weapons of the Church," etc. 
Although real classification is impossible, it will be found 
that the more headings into which the subject can be 
divided the more valuable will be the notes. It might be 
said here that it is often difficult to realize what the 
lecturer is about to discuss, so that the headings must 
sometimes be inserted after; but all good lecturers give 
a clue as to what they propose to deal with next. 

When taking notes at History lectures it is a good 
plan to put important dates down in the margin along- 
side the description, both as a help in remembering them 
and for the purposes of future reference. 

Science is the best example of the value of 
systematic classification. In most of its numerous 
branches it is absolutely essential. Take, for example, 
Palaeontology : the greater part of the subject is the 
classification of the fossils : an extract from a note-book 
with plenty of system in it might be as follows: — 

Phylum F. Arthropoda, 

Class II. Crustacea, 

Sub-class b. Malacostraca, 

Order viii. Decapoda, 

Section /?. Brachyura, 

Genus 3. Xanthopsis, 

and here would follow the description of the genus, and 
the names, characteristics and stratigraphical positions 
of the various species. 

Pure classification is similarly an important part of 
Botany, Zoology, etc., whilst in Physics and Chemistry 
the subject 7nicst be dealt with under various headings 
and sub-headings. 

Subjects like Jukispkudence, Economics and 
Theology do not at first sight seem to lend themselves 
to division, but some heading can always be found for 



17 

every portion of one's notes. Take a simple example 
in Law: — 

THE CONTRACT (continued). 
Essentials for Validity. 

(1) Offer and Acceptance. 

(2) Form or consideration. 

(3) Persons capable of contracting. 

(4) Genuineness of assent. 

(5) Legality of objects. 
or again : — 

EASEMENTS. 
(A) Light. 

(1) Acquisition of Right of Light. 

By (a) Express Grant. 
(6) Implied Grant. 

(c) Prescription at Common Law. 

(d) Prescription under Prescription Act. 

(2) Extent of the Right of Light. 

(3) Extent of the User of Light. 

(4) Extinction of Rights. 

and so on, 
writing notes on the necessary points under each heading. 
The value of method is not so important in either 
Classics or Mathematics, though headings will always be 
found useful both for the taking of notes and for subse- 
quent revision. 

V. ABBREVIATION. 

A reason often given for inability to take good notes 
at a certain course of lectures is that the Lecturer "goes 
so fast." This difficulty may be got over in one or all of 
three ways : — 

(1) Learn shorthand. 

(2) Cultivate the art of writing notes on what the 

Lecturer has just said while simultaneously 
paying attention to the subject to which 
the Lecturer has passed. 



18 

(3) Invent a system of abbreviation of your own. 

As to (1), it is hardly worth learning shorthand if it 
will be of no use to you afterwards. 

As to (2), this is what (very roughly) may be said to 
happen:— One part of the brain, through the agency of 
the hearing organs and afferent nerves, receives the 
Lecturer's words which are passed on to a department 
where the meaning gets " understood." Another depart- 
ment decides what notes to put down, and it is somewhere 
between here and the nerve centre which controls the 
movements of the hand (by means of the efferent or motor 
nerves) that storage and gradual supply must take place, 
while the receiving and reasoning departments are dealing 
with the next item of the lecture. Although this storage 
and gradual supply may come naturally to some people, 
it is usually only by practice that the faculty is acquired^ 
(A certain amount of practice is obtained in letter- 
writing, if one tries to make a point of not hesitating 
at all between one sentence and the next.) 

As to (3), if it is impossible to write fast enough 
to make as full notes as one would like, it is a good 
plan to abbreviate one's words freely. For instance, 
" wd," " cd " and " shd " can stand for would, could and 
should; "I" for the; "-I" for of; "&" for and; "v" for 
very ; " v " for extremely ; " wh " for which ; " +ve" & 
" — ve " for positive and negative, etc. : also unnecessary 
words can be dropped out here and there (but this must 
be done with care, for the omission of, say, the word 
"the" may, under certain conditions, spoil the meaning); 
the first letter of the name can be substituted for a 
name which is being constantly mentioned, and so on. 
But no rules can be laid down as to how various 
words can be abbreviated ; it is much better for everyone 
to make up their own system, creating a kind of private 
code : although this renders notes useless for lending to 
anyone else, it is very valuable for saving time. 

Wherever the cause and result (or "premises and 



19 

conclusion," as they are called in Logic) follow each 
other, they should be separated by the insertion of the 
" therefore " sign {.'.), otherwise the cause and result may 
be confused on looking through the notes later. This is, 
of course, extremely important in Mathematics, but is 
applicable to a great many other subjects. Similarly the 
" because " sign (•.*) is useful when a reason for a fact 
follows immediately after the statement of the fact. 

Of course the use of letters, figures, symbols, formulae, 
equations, etc., helps the abbreviation process enormously. 

It is, perhaps, a small point, but the writer considers 
that a good fountain pen has many advantages over 
an ordinary pen, both at lectures and in examinations, 
and that, by always using one, more time is saved than 
one would think. 

VI. THE VALUE OF DIAGRAMS. 

The possessor of a " photograph memory " of the 
extreme type is always, so to speak, carrying his camera 
about with him, and is never happy unless he can obtain 
a pictorial impression of everything that reaches his ears. 
This man ought to have his note-book full of diagrams. 
The extreme type is not often met with ; but all who have 
any tendency to pictorial impression will find diagram- 
matic representation a great help for the following 
reasons : — 

(1) It is a saving of time. 

(2) The actual making of the diagram in one's 

notes often helps one to work out the 
lecturer's reasoning at the time. 

(3) On looking up one's notes at any future time, 

the diagram reminds one how one under- 
stood what the lecturer was saying, and the 
method of reasoning which he employed. 
Of course some subjects, such as Botany, lend 
themselves much more to this kind of representation 



20 

than others, but it is surprising how much can be put 
in the form of a diagram. The simplest example is the 

substitution of an arrow (thus ^>) for such phrases as 

"turns into," "goes towards," "attacks," "is the means 
of producing," " and the result is," etc. 

In Science, illustrations of apparatus, botanical, 
geological, or anatomical specimens, structures, organs, 
and so forth, properly labelled with the names of the 
component parts, are quite essential, and generally a 
much better means of description than a long rigmarole 
of words ; but it is more the diagrammatic representation 
of the abstract that is here referred to. 

In all branches of Mathematics one gets an allied 
form of representation, and it is mostly to the mathe- 
matical brain that this method of diagrams will appeal. 
But it is not only applicable to Science and Mathe- 
matics. Everyone knows how much clearer the succession 
of the English Sovereigns becomes when a long descrip- 
tion of the various complicated connexions between the 
royal personages is converted into a neat genealogical 
table, and how much time and space is saved. 

The description of a battle, the constitution and 
organization of a community, the relation between points 
in the policy of a statesman, the breaking off of new and 
the extinction or the merging together of old religious 
sects, and so on, can all be represented by diagrams of 
some sort if a little originality is displayed. 

It will be useless to give many examples, as it is from 
the making up of one's own system of diagrams that one 
benefits most; but it seems imperative to supply one 
illustration of what has been said above : — 

The whole life history of the Trematode worm, the 
common Liverfluke (Pasciola hepatica), the great enemy 
of the shepherd, may be represented by a single diagram 
such as this : — 



21 



Cyst 



-> Liverfluke adult mt^ 



Egg 



(Eaten by sheep and 

works its way into 

the liver) 



Cercaria larva 



(Comes to rest on 
blade of grass) 



(Grows as a parasite on 
the liver) 



(Ejected by sheep) 



Ciliated embryo 

(Swims about in water) 



Redia <- 



(Sac in which the 
larvae germinate) 



Sporocyst <- 

(May multiply by 
budding) 



Miracidium larva 



(Lives as parasite in snail) 



> denotes " turns into." 

^^ >- „ " produces many." 

„ " inside the Sheep." 

„ on the ground or in the water. 

•%^*-^^^.>^ „ inside the Water Snail, Limnaeus Trunoatulatua. 

This section ought not to be concluded without intro- 
ducing the name of the celebrated mathematician Euler, 
who was the first to use the diagram method of repre- 
senting Universal and Particular Affirmatives and 
Negatives by arrangements of circles. 

By one such diagram as : — 




22 

we immediately infer, amongst various negative con- 
clusions, that :— 

(1) All metals* are elements. 

(2) Some elements, including some metals, are 

brittle substances. 

(3) Iron is a metal. 

(4) Cast iron is a brittle substance. 

(5) Wrought iron is not a brittle substance. 

A great deal of writing can often be saved in this way, 
and there is no doubt about it serving to impress the facts 
and processes of argument upon the memory. However, 
the range of subjects to which this method can be 
applied is not large. 

VII. A SUMMARY OF HINTS. 

A summary of the aforegoing pages makes a set of 
rules which, the writer ventures to think, those who have 
not had much experience in taking notes at lectures will 
find useful : — 

(1) Keep your mind fixed on the Lecturer's train 

of thought, and so try to understand his 
reasoning throughout. 

(2) Always be quick to catch the reason for every- 

thing he says. 

(3) Be methodical in the arrangement of your notes. 

(4) Get down in your note-book as much as possible, 

inventing all your own abbreviations where 
such are necessary, and making use of explana- 
tory diagrams, well labelled. 

(5) Underline the word on which you wish emphasis 

to be laid. 

(6) Let your phraseology be your own as far as 

possible: that is to say: Do not write down 
sentences from the Lecturer's lips. But if you 

* The word " metals " is used here in a strict chemical sense, and is not 
meant to include alloys. 



fail to understand one of his arguments, then 
the only course is to write down the words 
verbatim, and to get the argument cleared up 
later (as soon as possible) by asking the Lecturer 
or your coach or supervisor, or by referring 
to text-books, and inserting the point or points 
which have helped you to understand the 
argument on the blank page of your notebook 
opposite the matter which has been written 
verbatim. It is almost useless to try to make 
out the argument by yourself by poring over 
the dead form in your note-book, when you 
have failed to understand it at the time when 
the Lecturer is varying his tone and laying 
emphasis on important words. 
(7) Make a habit of reading through carefully in the 
evening all the notes taken in the day, altering 
and expanding where necessary. [This is 
extremely important.] 



24 



PART II. ON PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS. 

A few little notes might possibly prove useful to 
those intending to enter for an important examination. 

Examinations are supposed to be tests of the candi- 
date's knowledge, though they are very often a test of 
his ability to "cram," or of his quickness of thought 
and the speed at which he can write. A good examiner, 
however, can usually detect the crammer by his super- 
ficial knowledge, and his inability to answer indirect 
questions, which arises from committing to the memory 
just before the examination facts with which he has 
woven very few associations ; and can readily distinguish 
him from the candidate with a thorough and sound 
knowledge of his subject. 

To acquire that thorough knowledge, plenty of time 
must be given, however efficient our brains may be: so 
it is well to start preparing as far from the date of the 
examination as possible. It will always be found that the 
longer one spends acquiring certain knowledge, and the 
more associations there are collected round, the firmer 
will that knowledge get rooted in the memory. (A good 
example of this is the classics of one's preparatory school 
days.) 

Besides this thorough knowledge there are two other 
important factors which go towards gaining a high place 
on the list (" success," as it is called), which must not be 
lost sight of. One is experience in, and the other a study 
of the art of, taking examinations; it is very essential 
that the candidate should work out some special system 
of preparation to suit his particular case. 

Now let us suppose that all lectures in each course 
have been kept, good and well-arranged notes have been 
taken, and read through every night, that we have studied 



25 

the papers set for the last two or three years, so as to get 
familiar with the type of question the examiners ask, and 
that a vacation and a term separate us from the exami- 
nation. 

Now systematic and thorough revision two or three 
times over is absolutely essential before an important 
examination ; the longer one can spend on revision with- 
out any new matter to be learnt, the better. 

Suppose we have no more lectures to take, so that 
a clear ten weeks lies before us for revision. We have 
already made little marginal notes in our note-books by 
referring to the text-books or to our supervisor, expanded 
certain little details and systematised the whole, so that 
we may consider that if we know our note-books we know 
our subject fairly well. We have seven chief subjects, 
but know two of them much better than the rest. We 
will spend the first week on these two, and then give the 
next five weeks for our other five subjects consecutively, 
revising the one we 4ihink is most difficult to remember 
the last. We then have four weeks before the examina- 
tion : three of these weeks we spend on our second and 
final revisions, planning out our time in the most suit- 
able way; during which period we do many papers 
(similar to those we are likely to have in the examination) 
which we may make up ourselves or which our coach or 
supervisor may set for us, getting them finished in a 
specified time, for it is very essential to have as much 
practice as possible at working against time before we 
take the examination. We are then quite prepared to 
take the examination a week before the time. 

Stress might here be laid upon the importance of 
going to bed early during the last fortnight, of taking 
plenty of exercise so as to keep fit, and of getting into the 
way of being at our best at nine o'clock in the morning. 
It will be upsetting if we suddenly have to change our 
habit on the day of the examination. 



28 

The last week finds us at the seaside or at some place 
where our thoughts can easily be detracted from exami- 
nations, and where the brain can have a perfect rest. 

Now there are divergences of opinion with regard 
to this complete holiday immediately preceding the 
examination. 

On the one hand, many say it is of no advantage 
to do any work, not even to glance at one's notes, for 
a clear week up to the time of walking into the examina- 
tion room. 

On the other hand, there are many who, while 
advising a rest at some period before the examination, 
advocate spending the last few days on final revision. 
There are few who do not acknowledge the value of a 
rest at one time or another. 

The writer considers that the choice depends upon : — 
(1) The typo of subject. The greater the preponder- 
ance of fact over reasoning the more valuable 
is final revision at the last moment ; 
and (2) The type of candidate. »If he (a) has a bad 
memory, (6) is methodical and has prepared a 
very condensed summary of his notes, and (c) is 
not likely to be flurried or muddled by revising 
at the last moment, it will probably benefit 
him to take his rest early, and work up to the 
last minute, but not otherwise. 
To take an average type of candidate, the following 
procedure may, perhaps, be found to " pay " best : — 

Suppose it is Wednesday. We have finished our 
third revision and have made on a few sheets of paper 
some very condensed notes, perhaps merely a collection 
of single words, just to remind us of the parts of our 
notes which we find hard to commit to memory, and for 
the purpose of setting our train of thought working. 

The examination starts next Wednesday. We will get 
away from the sphere of work and academic associations 
and take a complete rest for three or four days at the 



27 

seaside or home, or some place with an entirely different 
environment; not taking any books with us, for if we 
do we shall find it very hard not to be always at them. 
On Monday morning we are back again, and we spend the 
rest of the time on just refreshing the memory by 
running through our condensed notes, not under any 
circumstances attempting to learn anything new to us ; 
not working too hard, and going to bed early. 

On the day itself we get up a little early, run over 
once more quite leisurely our condensed notes just to get 
our train of thought working, and, being cool and col- 
lected, stroll to the examination room, arriving in good 
time. 

A few hints on the actual examination, though some 
are rather obvious, might perhaps not be out of place : — 

(1) Before you begin, apportion your time for 

each question, either in equal proportions or 
in such ratios as you think best; and keep to 
these times as far as possible. 

(2) Spend a little time studying the exact meaning of 

the question before you begin to answer it, in 
order to make out precisely what the Examiner 
wants. It so often happens that the candidate 
misreads the question from not thinking over 
it enough ; and, though his answer may be quite 
sound, the Examiner cannot give any marks for 
it, as it is not an answer to his question ; or only 
a few marks, because of its irrelevancy. Some- 
times, when halfway through his answer, the 
candidate may suddenly realise that he has 
misunderstood the question ; and has to begin 
afresh or modify his answer considerably ; 
which might have been saved by thinking over 
the meaning of the question well, before 
answering it. 

(3) It is generally best to start on those questions 

which you can answer most satisfactorily and 



28 

to leave the ones you do not like the look of 
till the last; but where there are problems 
which may take you some time, or long de- 
scriptive questions, it is often wiser to leave 
these to the last so that they cannot take up 
too much of your time and compel you to 
rush the others. 

(4) If the subject be an essay, or if the question be 

one starting with the word "discuss," or any 
one which calls for initiative or originality in 
answering, spend some time (half-an-hour or 
more in the case of a three-hour essay), in 
making out the one point round which you can 
see the Examiner wishes you to centre your 
arguments, working out your scheme by 
building up a diagram similar to a genealogical 
tree in history, and arranging your treatment 
under headings, after which you will find the 
actual answering of the question come much 
easier and be in a form which the Examiner 
will appreciate. 

(5) If you find you are taking much too long over a 

question, end it off quickly and begin the next. 
It may be disappointing not to be able to com- 
plete your answer, but you must be severe with 
yourself in examinations. 

(6) It is much more important to attempt all questions 

than to spend the time trying to perfect a few 
of them, for it is easy to obtain three or four 
marks out of ten for a question you are uncer- 
tain about, while it is unlikely you will add 
more than one or two marks attempting to 
perfect your answer to a question you like. 

(7) In some subjects, especially in scientific ones, it 

is important to set out your answers systemati- 
cally with headings so that the Examiner can 
see at a glance how you have divided up your 



29 

treatment of the subject, and knows from the 
heading what to be prepared for. 

(8) Try to make the most of the knowledge you 

possess, but not so far as to cause the examiner 
to call your answer irrelevant 

(9) Use coloured pencils freely for making sketches 

and diagrams clear. They are an enormous 
help both to you and to the Examiner. 

(10) If time is precious, do not waste too much on 

making careful drawings or artistic sketches, 
where clear diagrams will answer the purpose, 
and if time is getting very short, label the 
diagrams only, without any long explanations. 

(11) Leave enough time at the end for looking care- 

fully through your paper, putting in stops and 
making all necessary corrections. This is 
more essential in essays and literary subjects 
than in others. 

(12) Never discuss between the papers what you got 

wrong or right with fellow candidates, for you 
are more likely to be disappointed than en- 
couraged, and every minute is precious for 
either taking a rest or preparing for the next 
examination, and there will be plenty of time 
for discussion after the whole examination is 
over. 

(13) Do not do much work in the evenings between 

the papers, and make a point of going to bed 
early ; it is the saying of a well-known coach 
that every minute after 10 o'clock means a mark 
lost in the examination next day. 



30 



APPENDIX. 



SOME HINTS ON PRACTICAL EXAMINATIONS 
IN SCIENCE. 

As undeserved failures in Science" examinations are 
so often due to ** coming down " in the practical work, 
a few general hints on this subject, which are not included 
in the aforegoing pages, may he found helpful. 

We are not going to concern ourselves here with 
laboratory work throughout the year, as it differs so 
much in the various subjects, but it may be mentioned 
that too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance 
of getting in as much practical work as possible, so as 
to get quite familiar with all the small details of each 
type of experiment, or, in the case of biological subjects, 
to practise cutting sections, dissecting tissues, using the 
microscope, drawing sketches of specimens, and so on. 
We will assume, however, that the candidate is in a posi- 
tion to do well in the examination, if he goes about it in 
the right way. 

Although it is really only experience in practical 
examinations themselves that will enable candidates to 
do them properly, the following pieces of advice, if taken, 
may go towards gaining high marks : — 

(1) In Chemistry and other subjects where it applies, 
start first on the experiment which will take 
the longest but will require least attention, 
such as where a liquid has to be heated up to 
boiling point ; and have two experiments going 
on at the same time where practicable. 



(2) Get down on paper as much as you can about the 
work you are doing. This is the commonest 
reason for a candidate not gaining the marks 
he should do in practical work. Have a slip of 
j)aper by you on the bench, and note down any 
details which you think will be worth referring 
to when you come to write out your answer; 
and when you have finished the practical part 
of your question, sit down and draw uj) a clear 
and concise answer. 

If it is an experiment in Chemistry or 
Physics, first give briefly the method you have 
adopted, then the practical details with sketches, 
the possibility of errors, the degree of accuracy 
you can hope for, and so on, and then your 
calculations (if any), and your result, and any 
further comments; all depending, of course, on 
the type of experiment. 

If the subject is a Biological one, you should 
be careful to include all the practical details as 
to how you dissected the tissues or cut the 
sections and mounted them, and, in cases of 
identification, all your observations and all the 
reasons for your deductions, and so on. 

Do not count on the examiner having 
noticed the apparatus you have set up and the 
method you have employed, or the way you 
have cut and mounted a section or dissected 
some Biological specimen, and given you marks 
accordingly ; but put everything down on paper. 
<3) Where a sketch or diagram is necessary, and it is 
not often that some kind of drawing is not 
needed in practical work, draw it clearly and on 
a large scale. It is a very common fault of 
candidates to draw the dissected parts of a 
botanical or anatomical specimen, or the appear- 
ance of cells under the microscope, on an 



32 

absurdly small scale. The drawing ought, in 
most cases, to cover nearly a whole page. 
(4) Leave plenty of time for writing out at the end, 
and, in cases where there is much calculation 
to be done, leave an excess of time, for you may 
make a small arithmetic mistake which does 
not become apparent until you have arrived at 
the result, and it is then annoying to hear 
" time " called before you have had a chance of 
working out your calculations afresh. 



Printed by W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., Cambridge. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



019 725 968 1 



